We often see young children playing an instrument or singing, showing excellent performing skills. And often times we hear people talking about a ”talent” or a ”born musician” without understanding exactly what musical ability means and how this affects the musical development. In fact there are two different types of arguments. One side supports that everything is possible for a human. All the skills and abilities that a person adopts is nothing more than the results of a good teaching and training mixed with the appropriate environmental influences and circumstances. The other side rejects this theory supporting that everything we do is based on the temperament. The teacher does nothing except for giving the right directions, but firstly the student must be talented in order to progress.
Is musicality biologically inherited or are there equal musical possibilities for everyone? This is an issue that particularly concerns parents and often confuses teachers. It is not rare for parents, when receiving progress reports, to ask the teacher ?is my son talented?, ?is my daughter really able to sing?? A question that has caused debates and bothered students and teachers for a long time finally have answers based on different resources.
A good definition of the word ”talent” comes from Daniel Levitin’s book ”This is your brain on music”: ”talent is a label that we are using in a circular fashion: when we say that someone is talented, we think we mean that they have some innate predisposition to excel, but in the end we only apply the term prospectively, after they have made significant achievements”. John C. Maxwell in the describes talent as a ?a God-given gift that should be celebrated, but ”you must lift it up”…”People have equal value, but not equal giftness. Some people seem to be blessed with a multitude of talents. Most of us have fewer abilities”. In summary he believes that all people are talented in something but this gift needs to be exercised based on the statement “develop the talent that you have, not the one you want”. How can psychology confirm that? According to the ”De Vries, J.M.A. (2008)” the development of a child is based on the interactions between nature and nurture. Aspects of ?nature?: our genetic blue print, DNA; in psychological terms: temperament, talent. Aspects of ”nurture”: impact of care, education, and the environment in general. Early interactions between foetus or neonate and the environment are often crucial for healthy development later in life
The influences that a child receives from the environment (school, teachers, family background, social circles) which we call nurture, determine the development of its personality and skills as they interact with its natural gifts. For example a very musically talented child that is growing up in a society without an opportunity to get in touch with music, does not have many possibilities to become a musician as the interactions are not the appropriate due to the negative circumstances. Therefore John C. Maxwell is right to support that talent is not enough. ”All the children can become musical if raised in the proper environment” (Robert A. Cutietta 2001).
”Musicians and Psychologists have tried to find ways of assessing musical ability and achievement that would prove useful in music education and in research”. (Rosamund Shuter 1968). There are a lot of researches by different analysts such like ”The Seashore Measures of Musical Talents”, Jacob Kwalwasser and Peter Dykema, The Drake music tests, ”The Oregon Discrimination tests, The Gordin Musical Aptitude profile, and so on but the most distinguished is Hebert Wing. ”Considerable efforts have been made by Wing to establish the validity of his tests. For example, he investigated the relationship between his tests results and the ability to preserve with the playing of a musical instrument. 333 boys, age 14 to 16, were divided into Above average and Below Average groups according to their tests scores. Wing (1948) found that 40% of those with below average, and 27% of those above average group had their playing lapse, while 2% of the above average group ceased to play”.
Perfect pitch
By investigating the phenomenon of perfect pitch, we should be able to understand better what musical ability is. Susan Hallam explains the phenomenon of absolute pitch as follows: ”Those individuals who posses, absolute pitch can identify or produce isolated pitches in the absence of a reference pitch”. This characteristic influences the development of a musician because those with absolute pitch, being able to recognize and reproduce musical sounds accurately and effortlessly, have the advantage to improve faster. For example a vocalist with perfect pitch can identify the difference between a wrong and right note, therefore can very easily avoid singing deftones which is crucial for a very fast progress. The composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is perhaps the most famous example and his perfect pitch ability is well documented. According to his biography book by Piero Melograni, Lydia G. Cochrane ?Little Wolfgang had won over the Paris public by his mastery of the keyboard: aside from his usual feats of playing blind and displaying his perfect pitch, he composed on the spot accompaniments to any melody suggested and demonstrated his ability to improvise for hours at the pianoforte”.
Back to Susan Hallam ”Musicians with absolute pitch have an increased left sided asymmetry of the planum temporal”. However she does not make clear if this is an innate characteristic or not: ”Even if there is a genetic component, early and prolonged musical training is usually necessary, the age of commencement being particularly important”, which confirms for once again the importance of the interactions between nature and nurture. ”40 per cent of musicians”, she continues,”who began lessons before the age of 4 had absolute pitch in contrast to 26 per cent who began training at 4-6 years and 8 per cent who began 6-9 years. At the moment it is not possible to say with any certainty whether the cortical differences identified in those with absolute pitch are a consequence of its development, its cause or a combination of both”?In order to explore change in the brain structures and functions, some research has focused on comparing the brains of a musician and an non musician. Differences have been found in a ”larger corpus callosum (the part of the brain connecting the right and left hemispheres), greater symmetry and size of left and right hemispheres in the motor cortext”. David Levitin confirms the same: ”Gottfried Schaugh at Harvard collected brain scans of individuals with absolutely pitch (AP) and showed that a region in the auditory cortex – the planum temporal – is larger in the AP people than the non AP people. This suggests that the planum is involved in AP but it?s not clear if it starts out larger in people who eventually aquire AP or rather, if the acquisition of AP causes the planum temporale to increase in size? Studies of violin players by Thomas Elbert have shown that the region of the brain responsible for moving the left hand – the hand that requires the most precision in violin playing – increases in size a result of practice”.
In general, musical ability is a multi-complex phenomenon. ”1. Tonal imagery (melody and harmony). 2. Rhythm imagery (tempo and meter). 3 Musical sensitivity (phrasing, balance and style)”. Gordon (1979) confirmed by Hallam’s resources. ”Identified a range of skills required for professional musicians – aural, cognitive, technical, musicianship, performance, learning and life skills?. As we can understand this is a large area and it would not be easy to identify what is the final outcome. However ??most of our responses to music are learned? Sloboda (1985) but what happens with all the responses that are not a subject to education and learning”
Brain evolution (our brain is a melting pot)
By studying the structure of a musical brain most of our responses to music can be learned as it has been proved that the human brain is a melting pot and even the innate characteristics can change after a lot of practice and learning. Researches show that the brain of a musician is different comparing to a common brain. Motor skills is something that can be learned as it is related with the Hindbrain and the cerebrum. Consulting again De Vries, J.M.A. (2008) ”The Cerebrum seems to teach the cerebellum”. The cerebrum ”One hemisphere, usually the left, is functionally dominant, controlling language and speech. The other hemisphere interprets visual and spatial information” (Britanica Encyclopedia online 2009), as it is described ”the thinking brain” which can analyze all the motor, sensory, emotional messages that receives from the outside world based on the excitation of a sensory organ or the process of useful information by cognitive functions, gives orders to the cerebrum which is responsible for the muscular movements.
The phenomenon of prodigy
Mozart is one of the most famous example of a musical prodigy. How can we explain the case of a child who is able to play the piano at the age of 5 and perform at the age of 13 without help from a teacher?
”We should distinguish between the talented person and the genius” referring to the musical prodigies. The most distinctive trait of the musical genius is the fact that he finds in music a dominant interest, is driven to it by an impulse, burns to express himself in music. He is driven by an instinctive impulse or craving for music which results is supreme devotion to its realization. The talented person on the other hand, gives evidence of unusual powers which may or may not be motivated by an instinctive impulse. The talented person tends to manifest specific skills while genius actually generalizes, creates, thinks in a large whole” Carl E. Seashore (2008). However this doesn?t mean that the teacher is not required. The main difference is that the prodigy child can pick up things faster than the rest, can progress faster while ordinary children need more practice and study.
”One of the characteristics of musical ability is its tendency to emerge at a relatively early age’. From data collected by Haecker and Ziehen from 441 cases, Resesz (1953) concluded that nearly half of the children revealed musical aptitude between their second and sixth year. From parents reports on the age at which various abilities were first noted in his sample of gifted children, Terman (1925) found that, except for general intelligence, musical ability was shown at lowest ages?Among the virtuosi instrumentalists studied by Arman Scheinfeld musicians talent appeared at an average age of four and three quarters and in the case of Juilliard music students at five and a half” (Rosamund Shuter 1968).
Back to Daniel Levitin ”In several studies, the very best conservatory students were found to have practiced the most, sometimes twice as much as those who weren’t judged as good. ..In another study, students were secretly divided into two groups (not relevant to the students so as not to bias them) based on teachers” evaluations to their ability, or the perception of the talent. Several years later, the students who achieved the highest performance ratings were those who had practiced the most, irrespective of which ”talent” group they had been assigned to previously” which confirms that musical ability is something that can be achieved by providing effort and practice. However does this apply to the phenomenon of a prodigy child where the performance standards are so high?
The role of reinforcement
”Reinforcement is the technical term used to describe any technique which modifies or charges behavior. Reinforcement may be positive (rewarding) or negative (withholding rewards, corrective feedback and punishment). The reinforcement may give the recipient information or feedback about his actions and thus act as a corrective to his behavior”. (George Brown 1981). ”Reinforcement is most effective when given immediately after a correct response. Punishment must not to be confused with negative reinforcement which is a response followed by the removal of an unpleasant event, for example. the bells in your car stop when you put the seatbelt on” (De Vries, J.M.A. 2008)
”Behavior can be shaped by appropriate reinforcement: this is perhaps, one of the most striking of Skinner?s suggestions. His experiments with animals led to the refinement of a technique known as differential reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired, target behavior”. (Leslie Basil Curzon 2003). Based on this research, the outcome is that a change in the behavior can lead to a change in the approach to music which is crucial for the musical development. Therefore if reinforcement is widely used, it would be possible to experience very fast progress.
”It is difficult to explain the highly developed skills of savants and prodigies without resorting to genetic explanations, although many of the savants have limited sight and language disorders, which may have led to increase development of auditory-processing skills and the use of music as a means of communication. They also spend a great deal of time practicing their skills, in part because they receive considerable positive reinforcement for their musical expertise. This they have in common with the prodigies. Both seem to find their musical activities intrinsically rewarding and spend much time engaged with them. This indicated that even where there may be genetically determined predispositions towards development musical skills, time spent rehearsing them is crucial to their development” (Susan Hallam 2006).
The role of memory in music learning
The Persistence of Memory (Salvador Dali)
”The mental system for 1) Receiving 2) Encoding (converting info for retention) 3) Storing 4) Organizing 5) Altering 6) Retrieving information” De Vries, J.M.A. (2008)
”Every musician will be ready to admit the importance of Memory, and should therefore to be glad to clarify his ideas, possibly a little vague and unorganized, as it to its nature possibilities. The first point to be recognized is this: that Memory is two kinds a) recognition, b) the power of recall, Recognition, sometimes called Memory Proper. You will remember that I have already pointed out the cardinal difference between ideas and sensations? Recall happens when we search in our minds for something and the idea comes up to the surface, often making and apparently stantaneous appearance, but always chronologically subsequent to the first moment of search”. Percy C.Buck (1968).
There are several ways that somebody can improve the memory. ”Paying Attention 1) Active learning 2) Adding words to music 3) Writing out the music 4) Mapping the music: segments, harmonies 5) Combining: auditory, kinesthetic, visual, cognitive aspects of memory” De Vries, J.M.A. (2008). How crucial it could be if these methods apply to a child from an early stage of life? De Vries, J.M.A. (2008) The experience can develop the cerebellum-cerebrum coordination and that causes changes in the structure of the brain, especially in the young children ”Early explosion of growth of synapses and dendrites facilitates neural connectivity and myelinisation of neurons speeds up processing” De Vries, J.M.A. (2008) which confirms the importance of education in musical development especially at an early stage of life. ”In your garden this development is fed by sunlight, rain and nutrients in the soil that become available again after winter. In infants this development is the result of interactions with the world”. ”Even just a small exposure to music lessons as a child creates neural circuits for music processing that are enhanced and more efficient than for those who lack training?, therefore the structures in the brain can change depending on the information that a person receives from the environment”. (David Levitin).
The importance of music education
As it is mentioned above, taking up music lessons from an early stage of life is very important for the child’s future musical development, as by the phenomenon of ‘’spring of the brain” the memory works better by picking up information easier. Another confirmation could be the example of several African American singers; Aretha Franklin, Prince, Michael Jackson had started singing from a very early age in the church choirs, and perhaps this was the basic stimulus and crucial influence for their future singing development. Apart from that the appropriate teaching can work as a basic way of motivation for the learner. Perhaps the most attractive aim of all music teaching is developing the love of music? He should respect the individual pupil?s vision of what is beautiful and leading from there to the deeper and wider views (Rosamund Shutter 1968).
Rosamund has divided the music learners in three categories. The first two that deserve more attention in the music education are 1) The gifted children (prodigies or geniuses) ”the children with a high level of talent to whom the study of music could bring great pleasure, even if they do not take it up as career”, 2) Those below the average ”those of low general ability who have at least some aptitude for music?, and the average children who are surely important, if only because there are so many of them”.
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Based on the researches above, the environmental influences (as a part of the nurture) vary and the personality of the growing child and under development musician can change. Therefore it would be difficult to define the final outcome.
In fact the musical education is very important for the young children as it has been proved by the phenomenon of the ”Spring of the brain”. When a child is getting in touch with music at a very early stage of life, then the neural connections are being built based on the musical influences. The information the neurons receive go to the forebrain which is the main part of the brain. The hippocampus which ?plays major roles in long term memory and spatial navigation”, (Wikipedia), and it is located in the forebrain in the limbic system and the amygdala ?primary role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions? (Wikipedia). The amygdale react based on what the hippocampus has recorded as appropriate and this determines the personality and the mental and physical activities. In relation to music, together with the appropriate reinforcement, the appropriate help for memory improvement it can result to high musical activities, even to gain a better pitch as the sound stuck in the brain. Of course there are innate structures in the brain as it has been proven above. However, the education is the best way to the final destination as the information a person receives can cause changes. Therefore, the teacher should pick a teaching method adaptable to the student?s abilities and background, and this is one of the main reasons why the students have to be treated as individuals.
The prodigy children are a phenomenon in themselves and cannot be compared with the rest. However as it comes like a final outcome, education is more important than the innate possibilities, and that because an average child that takes up music lessons and practices right and frequently, could achieve more than even a prodigy without satisfactory practice habits and without the treatment of an appropriate music teacher. On the other hand there are children with low musical ability (it is not even known if that occurs due to lack of music in the social environment from the early stages of life, or if there are other innate characteristics that slow down the musical development which is a combination of memory, motor and bodily skills). Nevertheless, based on the researches above, the innate characteristics that restrict their musical development can change with practice and learning. The only difference is that such a child would need more physical attempt comparing to the rest, but once the structures in the brain change, it could be possible to increase the level of musicality, but without the possibility to become a prodigy as the developing of the musical aptitude could take many years while the prodigy phenomenon is recognizable from the very early ages. Consequently there is a restriction in the musical development but the possibilities for upgr
ade are not few.
There is also a category of people with very much restricted abilities due to bodily malfunctions like the handicapped, brain damaged persons who could find it hard to acquire a high level of musical success due to the non normal communication with the outside world, or restricted motor skills. However in the history of music there are always examples of exceptions. One is the very famous composer Beethoven who ”was almost totally deaf (Middle life)” (Wikipedia), and even some singers (Louis Armstrong, Billie Holliday) who lost their voices due to abnormal use ending up to sing in a specific style of music that has been loved by the audience, however those voices are unique, and they are not a phenomenon for study and imitation.
The outcome
”One thing at least, is certain. There are vast resources of musical talent which await development. The discovery and fostering of this talent at the earliest stage depends perhaps most of all on the co-operation of parents and teachers, calling on the technical advice which experts are always only too ready to give” (Rosamund Shuter 1968). For once again, it would be very hard to have a clear answer about the musical ability, but despite the researches who insist in the importance of the education rather than the innate intelligence and confirm that the human brain is nothing more than a melting pot, the people will always be bothered by the idea of the talent and some will be always standoffish in what the music education can offer and the equal opportunity to that.
Bibliography:
Buck C. Percy (1968): Psychology for musicians. Oxford University Press, Londond.
Britanica Encyclopedia (online) http://www.britannica.com/ Specific address http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/103451/cerebrum
Brown George (1981): Microteaching: A Programme of Teaching Skills Published by Taylor & Francis,
Curzon Leslie Basil (2003): Teaching in further education: an outline of principles and practice. Published by Continuum International Publishing Group,
Cutietta A. Robert, Harvey Mercadoocasio (2001): Raising musical kids. Published by Oxford University Press US, 2001.
De Vries, J.M.A. (2008)? ?Lectures: 1) Human information Processing 2) Human development across the life span 3) Memory? Griffith College Dublin
Gordon (1979): Primary measures of music audiation. Chicago: GIA Publications
Hallam Susan (2006): Music Psychology in Education, Published by Institute of Education of University of London.
Levitin Daniel (2006): This is your brain in music. London (Atlantic books)
Maxwell C.John (2007): Talent is Never Enough: Discover the Choices that Will Take You Beyond Your Talent. Published by Thomas Nelson Inc.
Melograni Piero, Cochrane G.Lydia (2007): Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: a biography, Published by University of Chicago Press.
Seashore E. Carl (2008): Psychology of Music Published by READ BOOKS,
Shuter Rosamund (1968): The psychology of musical ability. London Mathuen and Co Ltd
Sloboda John (1985): The Musical Mind – the cognitive psychology of music. London: Oxford University Press.
The journal of neuroscience (October 8, 2003, 23(27):9240-9245): Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and Non-Musicians by Christian Gaser and Gottfried Schlaug web addres
Files: Griffith College, Dublin, Ireland (2009)
Notice: The copyright of the quotes is owned by the author of each extract.
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June 7th, 2009 at 8:11 am
It depends. If for example a child grows in a completely no musical environment the possibilities to become a great musician are less. Don’t forget what Koday, Dalcroze and Suzuki insisted. The importance of the early years in music teaching and the mother tongue approach.
June 7th, 2009 at 6:04 am
it depends on the person I think. Some can do well with little formal training and some need the formal training. Formal training never hurts though.
April 8th, 2009 at 5:22 pm
Very interesting post as well as the whole blog :)
I believe that it’s hard to say what’s more important, nature or nurture, as the interaction of these both will create a unique and talented person.
keep doing great job Mike!
April 7th, 2009 at 10:27 pm
I believe the brain of a musician does develop differently, and better in most ways, than an average brain. Great post.
April 6th, 2009 at 11:53 am
Hi Michael,
Answered your comment. I don’t think there is a fundamental disagreement here. I’m not sure pyschologists have the “desire” element properly sussed out. :)
April 4th, 2009 at 11:58 pm
Nice Article… like it!
April 3rd, 2009 at 9:57 pm
Both are important but one don’t need nature to become good.
Beat the gifted experts with hard work.
That’s what I believe in.
Everyone can be a great musician but some will need less work than others.
Our brain has a high capacity of metamorphosis and our knowledge about it is really, really limited.